Group C - Please Copy your references here so that we can upload them for the final paper.
Correlations - A causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relationship, especially a structural, functional, or qualitative correspondence between two comparable entities. (615 Glossary)
Bracey complains that he would like “to found the National Association for the Abolition of Correlation Coefficients (2006)” because of the difficulty people have interpreting correlations in data. He continues to state that the correlations that can be made are useful if educators are helped to understand what they mean (Bracey, 2006). An example of a study that looks for correlations in teaching and student learning is Zeng’s study of physical education in urban high schools (2009). Zeng et al created a study that’s purpose “was to examine the features and correlations between teaching behaviors and learning activities in urban high school physical education class settings using the DIBA [Direct Instruction Behavior Analysis] system (2009).” Looking at the relationship between how teachers utilized their class time and what students were capable of doing, the study determined three correlations. The first was the more time teachers spent informing students correlated with the amount students were motor engaged (Zeng et al, 2009). The second correlation was that teacher questioning was related to students being cognitively engaged (Zeng et al, 2009). The final correlation was between teacher feedback and students’ cognitive engagement (Zeng et al, 2009). Looking at correlations can help educators see what effects their teaching styles or their students’ socioeconomic status, or many other variables can have on student learning. - Stephanie Miller
Conclusions - A final part of the writing that restates the thesis, analyze[s] and evaluates the main points, considers consequences, shortcomings, general implications, recommendations and manifests the value of the research’s main ideas. (615 Glossary)
In any documented study, the conclusion summarizes the information determined by the data collected. It provides a succinct picture of what has been determined by the study and where the information could possibly be taken from there. An example of this can be found in Snow and D’Amico’s 2010 study, The drum-circle project: A qualitative study with at-risk students youth in a school setting. The conclusion of this study restates the questions asked throughout the process, and restates the results that support the authors’ ideas (Snow & D’Amico, 2010). It gathers information from the various tools utilized throughout the study, from videotaped teaching to interviews, to prove their statements (Snow & D’Amico, 2010). The authors go on to state that “generalizations [cannot be made] from a qualitative study but the conclusions can help shape future studies (Snow & D’Amico, 2010).” They state other things that can be done with the information in the future as well. Snow and D’Amico also give advice for researchers planning future studies that build on the work done in this study (2010). When educators are utilizing studies to support a point being made, or are researching on their own, the conclusion is an important section to include. - Stephanie Miller
Implications – Deduction: something that is inferred (615 Glossary)
Concerning teacher effectiveness and experience, research from the Urban Institute shows that the impact of experience :is strongest during the first few years of teaching; after that, marginal returns diminish... Beyond the first several years of teaching, experience is a less useful indicator of increased productivity: (King, 2010). This correlation between can have serious implications for the way school districs hire, compensate, and retain effective teachers. The article suggests "that compensation aimed at rewarding experience-based productivity may be best frontloaded in the salary schedule" (King, 2010) in order to recruit good teachers and to improve teacher effectiveness. - Cameron Johnson
Quantitative research - Use of sampling techniques (such as surveys) whose findings may be expressed numerically, and are amenable to statistical manipulation enabling the researcher to estimate future events or quantities. (615 Glossary)
A 2008 study of teacher certification and teacher effectiveness in New York City public schools looked at the characteristics of teachers hired during the 1999–2000 to 2004–2005 school years (Kane, Rockoff, & Staiger, 2008).
According to the quantitative data:
there were 51,788 teachers
3.9% of those teacher were international teachers
79.8% of the regular certified teachers were female
the median age of Teacher for America teachers when hired was 23
Table of quantitative research figures
- Cameron Johnson
Statistical significance - measure of validity of data. Data collected is "worth accepting with confidence," not a result of "chance" or sampling error. (Boudett, City, & Murnane, 2005) Not to be confused with practical significance(does the data have value.) (Bracey, 2006) Statistical significance does not mean what is states literally. Significant in non- statistical terms relates to value or importance. One might look at results and analyze what it means to them. That is practical significance. Statistical significance relates to truth of the data collected or reliability. This concept would apply to the classroom when comparing scores of a student. One would have to collect enough data and control as many variables as possible to ensure good scores are not a result of lucky guesses, while bad scores are not the result of teaching style. - Ron Pardoe
Formative Research Method - Research that occurs before a program is designed and implemented, or while a program is being conducted, helping to define, and understand and improve the relationship between programs and population needs. (EDTC 615 Glossary)
Formative research can be conducted not only to identify a program's operation, the problems which it addresses, and the effects it appears to produce, but also to facilitate program development. (Rutman,1997) This research method is currently being applied in our school. We have analyzed data to identify student weaknesses, and are asked to implement interventions. General reading comprehension skills have been identified as a deficit for several of my students. I have decided to implement a program titled Fast Track to address the students comprehension. Fast Track has a test to determine a student's baseline. I will collect data to analyze the effects this Reading program appears to produce. - Ron Pardoe
Qualitative Research - Investigative methodologies described as ethnographic, naturalistic, anthropological, field, or participant observer research, which emphasizes the importance of looking at variables in the natural setting in which they are found. These kinds of studies are incredibly important to the field of education due to the fact that the natural setting of the classroom is taken into effect. Educators can never really set up a perfect lab experiment where we can control for all variables of the situation due to the often quite varied experiences and abilities of all of our students. Using qualitative research methods allows teachers to make observations and comparisons that can then better inform the way they teach. Presently, there seems to be a movement in education against the use of qualitative studies due to their inherent lack of quantitative results. Author H. K. Wright argues that, “the state of qualitative inquiry,’ …in education is in quite a state.”(2006 p 793). By this the author means that the use of qualitative research in the classroom has taken a hit due to numbers based programs like NCLB. The author; however, argues that there are still several reasons for why the use of qualitative research is worthwhile in a classroom setting.
I tend to agree with the view point of Wright and have often times used qualitative research methods in my class when attempting new teaching methods that have been discussed during teacher in services. Administration is often finding new methods of teaching certain content areas and put a great deal of emphasis on teachers incorporating these methods into their classes. These methods; however, are not all made the same, some are great and some are awful. To determine if I will continue to use a technique I set out to observe my students in the classroom using the technique and compare it to how productive my students have been using other methods. This isn’t scientific, but it gives me a chance to see the technique in a real life situation that is full of variables to see if it is a worthwhile teaching technique. - John Freundel
Multiple methods - The combining of different methods within the same study design. There are certain times when performing research when one method of gathering data will simply not provide enough information to answer the research question. In these cases multiple methods of data gathering may be needed. As stated by Hitchcock in his article on multiple methods, “Mixed methods research entails a design in which ‘the investigator collects and analyzes data, integrates the findings, and draws inferences using both qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods in a single study or program of inquiry.’”(2010 p 49-50). For instance, in my AP Psychology classes there is clear data analysis that I can perform at the end of each year to determine how successful I was at teaching my students Psychology content. I can gather the data from the AP tests and see how my numbers compare to other teachers all around the country. This information; however, is only a small part of what I need to know in order to determine how successful I was at helping my students learn. In order to get a more complete picture of my students learning I could also incorporate qualitative measures through a survey at the end of the year to see what topics students felt the most/least confident in, as well as what activities/lectures were the best for the purposes of learning Psychology. With this information, I could better understand what the struggling students in the class did and didn’t understand as well as what the exceptional students needed to be successful. This is simply one example of how combining research methods can be beneficial to the teacher and students of a classroom. - John Freundel
Practitioner research - Research carried out by practitioners for the purpose of advancing their own practice. (615 Glossary)
Practitioner research “is conducted by an individual or group that assumes a dual role, both as a practitioner or provider of services and as researcher. It is typically carried out for the purpose of advancing the practice. It offers a reflective and systematic approach to university research and outreach that places a study setting and participants at the heart of the study. It incorporates the collective knowledge of the community, and increases the likelihood that results will be applied. The methods may vary, but the role and relationships of the researcher and participants must be carefully negotiated and articulated (CSU, 2007).” According to Pilkington, the steps in practitioner research include “cyclical processes of diagnosing a situation, gathering data, planning to act, acting and reflecting on action (2009).” Pilkington’s study looked at educators in a doctoral program that asks them to evaluate their teaching utilizing practitioner research (2009). Educators should utilize practitioner research in their teaching to determine where they need to grow and what will benefit their students’ learning. - Stephanie Miller
Research Methodology - A body of practices, procedures, and rules used by those who engage in an inquiry; a set of working methods (615 Glossary)
Research methodology has to do with the way research is gathered. According to Symonds and Gorard, there are two defined methods for gathering research, quantitative and qualitative (2010). They also describe a third method, which they define as a “mixed method” for retrieving information (Symonds, 2010). The mixed method utilizes aspects of both qualitative and quantitative in order to gather a broader range of information. In Boudett’s book, Data Wise, there is an anecdote about a school that is attempting to create a data inventory (Boudett, 2010). One of the teachers in the story complains that, “the [state standardized] test gives such an incomplete picture of who our students are. It tells us essentially nothing about a lot of the things we all know really matter: how often they come to school, how they behave when they’re here, what specific skills they’re struggling with if they are new to learning English, whether they can write a decent term paper. We’re not going to be able to get our kids beyond simply passing if we don’t take these things into account (Boudett, 2010).” With this in mind, educators and administrators should pay careful attention to the research methodology that they use to gather information about students that can then help students to progress and achieve more. - Stephanie Miller
Random sample - Sample chosen that allows all subjects an equal probability of being selected. Can also be called a probability sample. In order to discern true validity of new educational practices, one must make sure that studies attain a random sample. In order to run an experiment/correlational study, one must assign individuals to control and experimental groups, this must be done in a random way, or else the validity of the experiment will be called into question. Take for example, if a teacher is trying to gather data on two different methods of teaching a certain topic. If he simply assigns one class to the control group and the other to the experimental group and then bases his conclusion on the different performance of these groups on the two methods, he would be incorrect. There could be all sorts of factors that differentiate the first class from the second that are not being controlled for in the experiment, and these differences could be just as likely of causes for the difference in performance. If the teacher would have divided either class up by drawing names from a hat, or some other random means of assignment, the teacher would better control for possible confounding variables that could influence the study. Random sampling is a basic practice of all research methodologies and can be seen in any of the following research articles:
Gharghouri, P. (2004). Classroom note: Using Platonic bodies to generate a random sample from a population having two characteristics linked with a predetermined coefficient of correlation. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science & Technology, 35(2), 281-285. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.
Moreetsi, T., & Mbako, M. (2008). Predicting students' performance on agricultural science examination from forecast grades. US-China Education Review, 5(10), 45-51. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.
Sterba, S. (2009). Alternative Model-Based and Design-Based Frameworks for Inference From Samples to Populations: From Polarization to Integration. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 44(6), 711-740. doi:10.1080/00273170903333574. - John Freundel
Regression analyses - A statistical technique that compares a dependent variable to an independent variable(s) in order to identify a relationship between the two or more variables. Being an AP teacher, there are several variables that are important to consider when trying to identify what leads a student to a passing grade on the AP exam. I currently teach AP and Honors Psychology and have for as long as I have taught both, I have instructed students to take both classes because it would benefit them on the AP exam. Now that I have had several years of data, I have performed some regression analyses to see if there is a relationship between the independent variable of “# of semesters in a psychology class” and the dependent variable of “score on the AP exam.” What I have found is that students who have taken both 2 semesters of Psychology earn close to a full point higher score on the AP test. Obviously one cannot reduce the score of an AP test to one single variable, as is discussed thoroughly by Alan Sykes in his lecture on regression analysis, but it does prove to be a good stat when trying to influence students to take both classes in order to better their scores. - John Freundel
Experimental group - Group being treated, or otherwise manipulated for the sake of the experiment. (615 Glossary)
For a researcher to test a hypothesis, the researcher must have a group of subjects that are exposed to the variable of a controlled experiment. This group, when compared to the control group, will reveal whether the variable had any effect. Pharmaceutical research give us perhaps the most common use of experimental groups, where the experimental group is given the actual drug while the control group is given a placebo. In education research, an experimental group may receive a special mode of instruction, such as a web-based curriculum, while the control group receives the conventional or traditional mode of instruction (Ya-Wen & Hsiao-Ching, 2009). - Cameron Johnson
Participant - A person that has agreed to be involved in a survey, focus group, or study. Can also be referred to as a subject, unit, experimental unit, unit of analysis, or respondent. (615 Glossary)
In ethical research studies involving humans, there must be participants who have given their consent to be tested. There have been many unethical experiments that have used unwilling and non-consenting subjects, most notable being the 40-year Tuskegee syphilis experiment. In education research, the participants are mostly students who are exposed to an experimental method of instruction, such assigning a group of students to a classroom with laptops for each child, then comparing their test scores on standardized tests to test scores from students who did not use laptops (Dunleavy & Heinecke, 2007). - Cameron Johnson
Unstructured observation - Also known as a casual or simple observation. An observation conducted in a natural environment (field) where the observer simply watches, listens, and records (in a word narrative) the behaviors of the participants. This type of study is often the first step to developing a structured observation.Its main strength is the ability of the observer to remain anonymous. Main weakness is the influence of observer bias. Teachers routinely conduct this type of observation when recommending students for Student Support Team. Teachers will record anecdotal evidence to submit to the team for recommendations regarding behavioral or academic interventions. Frequently, teachers are asked to perform this type of data gathering for parents and physicians to document ADHD existence. - Ron Pardoe
Archival Research - Archival research is performed by analyzing studies conducted by other researchers or by looking at historical records. (Cherry, n.d)
Archival methods are those that involve the study of historical documents; that is, documents created at some point in the relatively distant past, providing us access that we might not otherwise have. Often a tool to supplement other research strategies. (Ventresca & Mohr, 2005)
Advantages of archival research include :
The experimenter cannot introduce changes in participant behavior.
Enormous amounts of data provide a better view of trends, relationships, and outcomes.
Often less expensive than other study methods. Researchers can often access data through free archives or records databases.
Disadvantages of archival research include:
The researchers have not control over how data was collected.
Important date may be missing from the records.
Previous research may be unreliable. (Cherry, n.d)
- Ron Pardoe
References
Bracey, G. W. (2006). Reading educational research>. Heinemann: Portsmouth, NH. - Stephanie Miller
Bracey, G. (2006). Reading educational research:How to avoid getting statistically snookered. Portsmouth,NH: Heinemann. - Ron Pardoe
Boudett, K., City, E., & Murnane, R. (Ed.). (2005). Data wise:A step-by-step guide to using assessment results to improve teaching and learning. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Education Press - Ron Pardoe
Dunleavy, M., & Heinecke, W. (2007). The impact of 1:1 laptop use on middle school math and science standardized test scores. Computers in the Schools, 24(3/4), 7-22. doi:10.1300/J025v24n03-02. - Cameron Johnson
Gharghouri, P. (2004). Classroom note: Using Platonic bodies to generate a random sample from a population having two characteristics linked with a predetermined coefficient of correlation. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science & Technology, 35(2), 281-285. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database. - John Freundel
Kane, T.J., Rockoff, J.E., & Staiger, D.O. (2008). What does certification tell us about teacher effectiveness? Evidence from New York City. Economics of Education Review 27(6), 615-631. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2007.05.005 - Cameron Johnson
Moreetsi, T., & Mbako, M. (2008). Predicting students' performance on agricultural science examination from forecast grades. US-China Education Review, 5(10), 45-51. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database. - John Freundel
Observation.pdf (n.d.). Retrieved from www.public.asu.edu/~kroel/www500/Observation.pdf- - Ron Pardoe
Pilkington, R.M. (2009). Studies in the Education of Adults, 41(2), 154-174. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database. - Stephanie Miller
Rice, J. K., (2010). The impact of teacher experience: Examining the evidence and policy implications. National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research, Brief 11, August 2010. Retrieved October 11, 20101, from http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/1001455-impact-teacher-experience.pdf - Cameron Johnson
Snow, S., D’Amico, M. (2010). The drum circle project: A qualitative study with at-risk youth in a school setting. Canadian Journal of Music Therapy. (16)1, 12-39. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete. - Stephanie Miller
Sterba, S. (2009). Alternative Model-Based and Design-Based Frameworks for Inference From Samples to Populations: From Polarization to Integration. Multivariate Behavioral Research. 44(6), 711-740. doi:10.1080/00273170903333574. - John Freundel
Symonds, J.E., Gorard, S. (2010). Death of mixed methods? Or the rebirth of research as a craft. Evaluation & Research in Education, 23(2), 121-136. doi:10.1080/09500790.2010.483514 - Stephanie Miller
Ya-Wen, L., & Hsiao-Ching, S. (2009). Enhancing eight grade students' scientific conceptual change and scientific reasoning through a web-based learning program. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), 228-240. - Cameron Johnson
Zeng, H.Z., Leung, R., Wenhao, L. & Hipscher, M. (2009). Physical education in urban high school class settings: Features and correlations between teaching behaviors and learning activities. Physical Educator, 66(4), 186-196. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete. - Stephanie Miller
Group C - Please Copy your references here so that we can upload them for the final paper.
Correlations - A causal, complementary, parallel, or reciprocal relationship, especially a structural, functional, or qualitative correspondence between two comparable entities. (615 Glossary)
Bracey complains that he would like “to found the National Association for the Abolition of Correlation Coefficients (2006)” because of the difficulty people have interpreting correlations in data. He continues to state that the correlations that can be made are useful if educators are helped to understand what they mean (Bracey, 2006). An example of a study that looks for correlations in teaching and student learning is Zeng’s study of physical education in urban high schools (2009). Zeng et al created a study that’s purpose “was to examine the features and correlations between teaching behaviors and learning activities in urban high school physical education class settings using the DIBA [Direct Instruction Behavior Analysis] system (2009).” Looking at the relationship between how teachers utilized their class time and what students were capable of doing, the study determined three correlations. The first was the more time teachers spent informing students correlated with the amount students were motor engaged (Zeng et al, 2009). The second correlation was that teacher questioning was related to students being cognitively engaged (Zeng et al, 2009). The final correlation was between teacher feedback and students’ cognitive engagement (Zeng et al, 2009). Looking at correlations can help educators see what effects their teaching styles or their students’ socioeconomic status, or many other variables can have on student learning.
- Stephanie Miller
Conclusions - A final part of the writing that restates the thesis, analyze[s] and evaluates the main points, considers consequences, shortcomings, general implications, recommendations and manifests the value of the research’s main ideas. (615 Glossary)
In any documented study, the conclusion summarizes the information determined by the data collected. It provides a succinct picture of what has been determined by the study and where the information could possibly be taken from there. An example of this can be found in Snow and D’Amico’s 2010 study, The drum-circle project: A qualitative study with at-risk students youth in a school setting. The conclusion of this study restates the questions asked throughout the process, and restates the results that support the authors’ ideas (Snow & D’Amico, 2010). It gathers information from the various tools utilized throughout the study, from videotaped teaching to interviews, to prove their statements (Snow & D’Amico, 2010). The authors go on to state that “generalizations [cannot be made] from a qualitative study but the conclusions can help shape future studies (Snow & D’Amico, 2010).” They state other things that can be done with the information in the future as well. Snow and D’Amico also give advice for researchers planning future studies that build on the work done in this study (2010). When educators are utilizing studies to support a point being made, or are researching on their own, the conclusion is an important section to include.
- Stephanie Miller
Implications – Deduction: something that is inferred (615 Glossary)
Concerning teacher effectiveness and experience, research from the Urban Institute shows that the impact of experience :is strongest during the first few years of teaching; after that, marginal returns diminish... Beyond the first several years of teaching, experience is a less useful indicator of increased productivity: (King, 2010). This correlation between can have serious implications for the way school districs hire, compensate, and retain effective teachers. The article suggests "that compensation aimed at rewarding experience-based productivity may be best frontloaded in the salary schedule" (King, 2010) in order to recruit good teachers and to improve teacher effectiveness.
- Cameron Johnson
Quantitative research - Use of sampling techniques (such as surveys) whose findings may be expressed numerically, and are amenable to statistical manipulation enabling the researcher to estimate future events or quantities. (615 Glossary)
A 2008 study of teacher certification and teacher effectiveness in New York City public schools looked at the characteristics of teachers hired during the 1999–2000 to 2004–2005 school years (Kane, Rockoff, & Staiger, 2008).
According to the quantitative data:
Statistical significance - measure of validity of data. Data collected is "worth accepting with confidence," not a result of "chance" or sampling error. (Boudett, City, & Murnane, 2005) Not to be confused with practical significance(does the data have value.) (Bracey, 2006) Statistical significance does not mean what is states literally. Significant in non- statistical terms relates to value or importance. One might look at results and analyze what it means to them. That is practical significance. Statistical significance relates to truth of the data collected or reliability. This concept would apply to the classroom when comparing scores of a student. One would have to collect enough data and control as many variables as possible to ensure good scores are not a result of lucky guesses, while bad scores are not the result of teaching style.
- Ron Pardoe
Formative Research Method - Research that occurs before a program is designed and implemented, or while a program is being conducted, helping to define, and understand and improve the relationship between programs and population needs. (EDTC 615 Glossary)
Formative research can be conducted not only to identify a program's operation, the problems which it addresses, and the effects it appears to produce, but also to facilitate program development. (Rutman,1997) This research method is currently being applied in our school. We have analyzed data to identify student weaknesses, and are asked to implement interventions. General reading comprehension skills have been identified as a deficit for several of my students. I have decided to implement a program titled Fast Track to address the students comprehension. Fast Track has a test to determine a student's baseline. I will collect data to analyze the effects this Reading program appears to produce.
- Ron Pardoe
Qualitative Research - Investigative methodologies described as ethnographic, naturalistic, anthropological, field, or participant observer research, which emphasizes the importance of looking at variables in the natural setting in which they are found. These kinds of studies are incredibly important to the field of education due to the fact that the natural setting of the classroom is taken into effect. Educators can never really set up a perfect lab experiment where we can control for all variables of the situation due to the often quite varied experiences and abilities of all of our students. Using qualitative research methods allows teachers to make observations and comparisons that can then better inform the way they teach. Presently, there seems to be a movement in education against the use of qualitative studies due to their inherent lack of quantitative results. Author H. K. Wright argues that, “the state of qualitative inquiry,’ …in education is in quite a state.”(2006 p 793). By this the author means that the use of qualitative research in the classroom has taken a hit due to numbers based programs like NCLB. The author; however, argues that there are still several reasons for why the use of qualitative research is worthwhile in a classroom setting.
I tend to agree with the view point of Wright and have often times used qualitative research methods in my class when attempting new teaching methods that have been discussed during teacher in services. Administration is often finding new methods of teaching certain content areas and put a great deal of emphasis on teachers incorporating these methods into their classes. These methods; however, are not all made the same, some are great and some are awful. To determine if I will continue to use a technique I set out to observe my students in the classroom using the technique and compare it to how productive my students have been using other methods. This isn’t scientific, but it gives me a chance to see the technique in a real life situation that is full of variables to see if it is a worthwhile teaching technique.
- John Freundel
Multiple methods - The combining of different methods within the same study design. There are certain times when performing research when one method of gathering data will simply not provide enough information to answer the research question. In these cases multiple methods of data gathering may be needed. As stated by Hitchcock in his article on multiple methods, “Mixed methods research entails a design in which ‘the investigator collects and analyzes data, integrates the findings, and draws inferences using both qualitative and quantitative approaches or methods in a single study or program of inquiry.’”(2010 p 49-50). For instance, in my AP Psychology classes there is clear data analysis that I can perform at the end of each year to determine how successful I was at teaching my students Psychology content. I can gather the data from the AP tests and see how my numbers compare to other teachers all around the country. This information; however, is only a small part of what I need to know in order to determine how successful I was at helping my students learn. In order to get a more complete picture of my students learning I could also incorporate qualitative measures through a survey at the end of the year to see what topics students felt the most/least confident in, as well as what activities/lectures were the best for the purposes of learning Psychology. With this information, I could better understand what the struggling students in the class did and didn’t understand as well as what the exceptional students needed to be successful. This is simply one example of how combining research methods can be beneficial to the teacher and students of a classroom.
- John Freundel
Practitioner research - Research carried out by practitioners for the purpose of advancing their own practice. (615 Glossary)
Practitioner research “is conducted by an individual or group that assumes a dual role, both as a practitioner or provider of services and as researcher. It is typically carried out for the purpose of advancing the practice. It offers a reflective and systematic approach to university research and outreach that places a study setting and participants at the heart of the study. It incorporates the collective knowledge of the community, and increases the likelihood that results will be applied. The methods may vary, but the role and relationships of the researcher and participants must be carefully negotiated and articulated (CSU, 2007).” According to Pilkington, the steps in practitioner research include “cyclical processes of diagnosing a situation, gathering data, planning to act, acting and reflecting on action (2009).” Pilkington’s study looked at educators in a doctoral program that asks them to evaluate their teaching utilizing practitioner research (2009). Educators should utilize practitioner research in their teaching to determine where they need to grow and what will benefit their students’ learning.
- Stephanie Miller
Research Methodology - A body of practices, procedures, and rules used by those who engage in an inquiry; a set of working methods (615 Glossary)
Research methodology has to do with the way research is gathered. According to Symonds and Gorard, there are two defined methods for gathering research, quantitative and qualitative (2010). They also describe a third method, which they define as a “mixed method” for retrieving information (Symonds, 2010). The mixed method utilizes aspects of both qualitative and quantitative in order to gather a broader range of information. In Boudett’s book, Data Wise, there is an anecdote about a school that is attempting to create a data inventory (Boudett, 2010). One of the teachers in the story complains that, “the [state standardized] test gives such an incomplete picture of who our students are. It tells us essentially nothing about a lot of the things we all know really matter: how often they come to school, how they behave when they’re here, what specific skills they’re struggling with if they are new to learning English, whether they can write a decent term paper. We’re not going to be able to get our kids beyond simply passing if we don’t take these things into account (Boudett, 2010).” With this in mind, educators and administrators should pay careful attention to the research methodology that they use to gather information about students that can then help students to progress and achieve more.
- Stephanie Miller
Random sample - Sample chosen that allows all subjects an equal probability of being selected. Can also be called a probability sample. In order to discern true validity of new educational practices, one must make sure that studies attain a random sample. In order to run an experiment/correlational study, one must assign individuals to control and experimental groups, this must be done in a random way, or else the validity of the experiment will be called into question. Take for example, if a teacher is trying to gather data on two different methods of teaching a certain topic. If he simply assigns one class to the control group and the other to the experimental group and then bases his conclusion on the different performance of these groups on the two methods, he would be incorrect. There could be all sorts of factors that differentiate the first class from the second that are not being controlled for in the experiment, and these differences could be just as likely of causes for the difference in performance. If the teacher would have divided either class up by drawing names from a hat, or some other random means of assignment, the teacher would better control for possible confounding variables that could influence the study. Random sampling is a basic practice of all research methodologies and can be seen in any of the following research articles:
Gharghouri, P. (2004). Classroom note: Using Platonic bodies to generate a random sample from a population having two characteristics linked with a predetermined coefficient of correlation. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science & Technology, 35(2), 281-285. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.
Moreetsi, T., & Mbako, M. (2008). Predicting students' performance on agricultural science examination from forecast grades. US-China Education Review, 5(10), 45-51. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.
Sterba, S. (2009). Alternative Model-Based and Design-Based Frameworks for Inference From Samples to Populations: From Polarization to Integration. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 44(6), 711-740. doi:10.1080/00273170903333574.
- John Freundel
Regression analyses - A statistical technique that compares a dependent variable to an independent variable(s) in order to identify a relationship between the two or more variables. Being an AP teacher, there are several variables that are important to consider when trying to identify what leads a student to a passing grade on the AP exam. I currently teach AP and Honors Psychology and have for as long as I have taught both, I have instructed students to take both classes because it would benefit them on the AP exam. Now that I have had several years of data, I have performed some regression analyses to see if there is a relationship between the independent variable of “# of semesters in a psychology class” and the dependent variable of “score on the AP exam.” What I have found is that students who have taken both 2 semesters of Psychology earn close to a full point higher score on the AP test. Obviously one cannot reduce the score of an AP test to one single variable, as is discussed thoroughly by Alan Sykes in his lecture on regression analysis, but it does prove to be a good stat when trying to influence students to take both classes in order to better their scores.
- John Freundel
Experimental group - Group being treated, or otherwise manipulated for the sake of the experiment. (615 Glossary)
For a researcher to test a hypothesis, the researcher must have a group of subjects that are exposed to the variable of a controlled experiment. This group, when compared to the control group, will reveal whether the variable had any effect. Pharmaceutical research give us perhaps the most common use of experimental groups, where the experimental group is given the actual drug while the control group is given a placebo. In education research, an experimental group may receive a special mode of instruction, such as a web-based curriculum, while the control group receives the conventional or traditional mode of instruction (Ya-Wen & Hsiao-Ching, 2009).
- Cameron Johnson
Participant - A person that has agreed to be involved in a survey, focus group, or study. Can also be referred to as a subject, unit, experimental unit, unit of analysis, or respondent. (615 Glossary)
In ethical research studies involving humans, there must be participants who have given their consent to be tested. There have been many unethical experiments that have used unwilling and non-consenting subjects, most notable being the 40-year Tuskegee syphilis experiment. In education research, the participants are mostly students who are exposed to an experimental method of instruction, such assigning a group of students to a classroom with laptops for each child, then comparing their test scores on standardized tests to test scores from students who did not use laptops (Dunleavy & Heinecke, 2007).
- Cameron Johnson
Unstructured observation - Also known as a casual or simple observation. An observation conducted in a natural environment (field) where the observer simply watches, listens, and records (in a word narrative) the behaviors of the participants. This type of study is often the first step to developing a structured observation.Its main strength is the ability of the observer to remain anonymous. Main weakness is the influence of observer bias. Teachers routinely conduct this type of observation when recommending students for Student Support Team. Teachers will record anecdotal evidence to submit to the team for recommendations regarding behavioral or academic interventions. Frequently, teachers are asked to perform this type of data gathering for parents and physicians to document ADHD existence.
- Ron Pardoe
Archival Research - Archival research is performed by analyzing studies conducted by other researchers or by looking at historical records. (Cherry, n.d)
Archival methods are those that involve the study of historical documents; that is, documents created at some point in the relatively distant past, providing us access that we might not otherwise have. Often a tool to supplement other research strategies. (Ventresca & Mohr, 2005)
Advantages of archival research include :
- The experimenter cannot introduce changes in participant behavior.
- Enormous amounts of data provide a better view of trends, relationships, and outcomes.
- Often less expensive than other study methods. Researchers can often access data through free archives or records databases.
Disadvantages of archival research include:- The researchers have not control over how data was collected.
- Important date may be missing from the records.
- Previous research may be unreliable. (Cherry, n.d)
- Ron PardoeReferences
Bracey, G. W. (2006). Reading educational research>. Heinemann: Portsmouth, NH.
- Stephanie Miller
Bracey, G. (2006). Reading educational research:How to avoid getting statistically snookered. Portsmouth,NH: Heinemann.
- Ron Pardoe
Boudett, K., City, E., & Murnane, R. (Ed.). (2005). Data wise:A step-by-step guide to using assessment results to improve teaching and learning. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Education Press
- Ron Pardoe
The California State University Chancellor’s Doctoral Incentive Program. (2007). Practitioner Research. Retrieved from http://teachingcommons.cdl.edu/cdip/facultyresearch/Practitionerresearch.html
- Stephanie Miller
Cherry, K. (n.d.). Correlational studies- psychology correlational studies. Retrieved from http://psychology.about.com/od/researchmethods/a/correlational
- Ron Pardoe
Dunleavy, M., & Heinecke, W. (2007). The impact of 1:1 laptop use on middle school math and science standardized test scores. Computers in the Schools, 24(3/4), 7-22. doi:10.1300/J025v24n03-02.
- Cameron Johnson
Gharghouri, P. (2004). Classroom note: Using Platonic bodies to generate a random sample from a population having two characteristics linked with a predetermined coefficient of correlation. International Journal of Mathematical Education in Science & Technology, 35(2), 281-285. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.
- John Freundel
Kane, T.J., Rockoff, J.E., & Staiger, D.O. (2008). What does certification tell us about teacher effectiveness? Evidence from New York City. Economics of Education Review 27(6), 615-631. doi:10.1016/j.econedurev.2007.05.005
- Cameron Johnson
Keegan, G. (n.d.). Gerard keegan's psychology site : gloosary u. Retrieved from http://www.gerardkeegan.co.uk/glossary/gloss_u.htm
- Ron Pardoe
Methods for social researchers in developing countries (n.d.). Retrieved from http://srmdc.net/chapter13/2.htm
- Ron Pardoe
Moreetsi, T., & Mbako, M. (2008). Predicting students' performance on agricultural science examination from forecast grades. US-China Education Review, 5(10), 45-51. Retrieved from Education Research Complete database.
- John Freundel
Observation.pdf (n.d.). Retrieved from www.public.asu.edu/~kroel/www500/Observation.pdf-
- Ron Pardoe
Pilkington, R.M. (2009). Studies in the Education of Adults, 41(2), 154-174. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.
- Stephanie Miller
Rice, J. K., (2010). The impact of teacher experience: Examining the evidence and policy implications. National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research, Brief 11, August 2010. Retrieved October 11, 20101, from http://www.urban.org/UploadedPDF/1001455-impact-teacher-experience.pdf
- Cameron Johnson
Snow, S., D’Amico, M. (2010). The drum circle project: A qualitative study with at-risk youth in a school setting. Canadian Journal of Music Therapy. (16)1, 12-39. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete.
- Stephanie Miller
Sterba, S. (2009). Alternative Model-Based and Design-Based Frameworks for Inference From Samples to Populations: From Polarization to Integration. Multivariate Behavioral Research. 44(6), 711-740. doi:10.1080/00273170903333574.
- John Freundel
Symonds, J.E., Gorard, S. (2010). Death of mixed methods? Or the rebirth of research as a craft. Evaluation & Research in Education, 23(2), 121-136. doi:10.1080/09500790.2010.483514
- Stephanie Miller
Sykes, A. An Introduction to Regression Analysis. The Inaugural coase lecture. Retrieved 11/8 from [[http://www.law.uchicago.edu/files/files/20.Sykes_Regression.pdf
- John Freundel
Ventresca, M., & Mohr, J. (2005). Chapter thirty-five. archival research methods: the blackwell companion to organizations- blackwell reference online. Retrieved from http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9780631216940_chunk_g978063121694040
- Ron Pardoe
Ya-Wen, L., & Hsiao-Ching, S. (2009). Enhancing eight grade students' scientific conceptual change and scientific reasoning through a web-based learning program. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 12(4), 228-240.
- Cameron Johnson
Zeng, H.Z., Leung, R., Wenhao, L. & Hipscher, M. (2009). Physical education in urban high school class settings: Features and correlations between teaching behaviors and learning activities. Physical Educator, 66(4), 186-196. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete.
- Stephanie Miller